Aging
Longitudinal Analysis on the Impact of Generation and Age of Immigration on Later Life Cognitive Performance in KHANDLE Shelli Vodovozov* Shelli Vodovozov Rachel Peterson Adina Zeki Al Hazzouri Oanh L. Meyer Claire C. Meunier Rachel A. Whitmer Anna M. Pederson Scott Zimmerman Maria M. Glymour
Introduction: Given the heterogeneity in lived experiences and educational quality among the growing immigrant population in the US, understanding the impact of generational status and age at immigration on cognitive aging is critical.
Methods: The Kaiser Healthy Aging and Diverse Life Experiences (KHANDLE) cohort is a diverse cohort of community-dwelling older adults in Northern California (n=1,885). Generational status was constructed using data on country of birth, age at immigration, and parental immigrant status as: first-generation who immigrated in adulthood (>18, n=301); first-generation who immigrated in adolescence (14-18, n=41); first-generation who immigrated in childhood (<14, n=66); second-generation (n=503); and third-generation or greater (n=974). Outcomes included level and change in verbal episodic memory and executive function, assessed at up to 4 waves approximately 18 months apart and Z-scored using baseline. Associations were evaluated using linear mixed effects models adjusted for baseline age, gender, race/ethnicity, education, parental education, and income.
Results: Compared to third-generation or greater participants (ref), immigration in adulthood was associated with lower verbal memory (β = -0.19; 95% CI: -0.30, -0.08) and executive function (β = -0.47; 95% CI: -0.56, -0.38); immigration in adolescence was associated with lower executive function (β = -0.37; 95% CI: -0.57, -0.18). Second-generation status was associated with slightly lower executive function (β = -0.08; 95% CI: -0.16, -0.02).
We found no significant differences in cognitive change across the immigration status categories.
Conclusions: Generational status and age at immigration were associated with later-life cognitive outcomes, a pattern that may reflect the experiences of immigration, the selection into immigration, or measurement challenges. There were no differences in rate of cognitive decline with age, although the sample was small.
